Unfortunately I haven't found a solution for this problem. But today I was lucky enough to find a workaround! :)
After reading Thomas Fuchs' Embedding Canvas and SVG charts in emails I went the radical way and completely replaced wkhtmltoimage with PhantomJS. I also used his gist to install some dependencies. And here are the results:
wkhtmltoimage local & remote:
PhantomJS local & remote:
Though there are still small differences, PhantomJS does its job quite good! So I will use this for now, and close this question :)